Dysthymia denotes a chronic mood disorder, which can be categorized under the gamut of depression. It is believed to be a chronic depression; however, with lesser severity than in the case of major depressive disorders. This disorder at times takes the form of a chronic, as well as long-lasting illness. Dysthymia is often referred to a type of low-grade depression. Being one of the two major kinds of clinical depression; it generally shows fewer or lesser severe symptoms than major depression cases. It however, lasts longer.

According to a rough estimate, three out of four patients suffering from dysthymia might also suffer from a chronic physical illness, along with other psychiatric disorders like anxiety disorders, along with drug addiction, as well as turning towards alcohol, apart from a volley of other features. It has been estimated that three out of every hundred people are affected with dysthymia, which is responsible for significant functional impairment.

As far as the symptoms of dysthymia are concerned, they are quite similar to that of major depression, although they may tend to be less intense. In both the cases, a patient may show a low, as well as an irritable mood, along with lack of interest in things which most people might find enjoyable. They are also likely to suffer from a lack of energy, although this may not be experienced by all the patients. Along with that, a patient may also experience an increase or decrease in appetite, as well as weight.

The patient is also likely to suffer from insomnia or on the other sleep related disorders, such as excessive sleeping. He might also find it difficult to concentrate. The patient might be indecisive or pessimistic and may carry a negative self-image. The manifestations may grow up into a full fledged period of major depression. Such a situation is often referred to as double depression. This is because; the extreme episodes remain with the general feeling of low mood. Patients suffering from dysthymia have an above average possibility of suffering from major depression.

Medication in case of Dysthymia mostly revolves around the usage of anti-depressants which includes selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as sertraline, citalopram, as well as paroxetine. As it is, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are easy to administer, as well as relatively safer in comparison with older forms of anti-depressants. Apart from them, several new anti-depressants like duloxetine, venlafaxine, as well as bupropion, are increasingly being used.

As it is, apart from medication, psychotherapy may also play a vital role in the recovery of the patient. The type of psychotherapy however depends on a variety of aspects. The therapy should involve education in regard to depression. Support is another essential factor. Several therapies like the Cognitive behavioral therapy have been designed to evaluate, as well as correct self-critical thought patterns, as well as cognitive distortions.

Dementia is a medical condition marked by a progressive degradation in the cognitive function, caused due to damage or disease in the body. This degradation is far beyond what can be expected as a repercussion of normal aging. As it is, dementia is a condition, which usually strikes the elderly population. However, this is not a hard and fast rule and it may strike in any stage of adulthood. Now this age factor definition as parallel sets of signs caused by organic brain dysfunction is addressed differently in case of populations, which are younger than adulthood.

Dementia is a non-specific illness syndrome, which affects the areas of cognitive function, such as language, memory, attention, as well as problem solving. The effects are gradual and start with the degradation of the higher mental functions, which are the first to be affected. In the later phases of the condition, the affected people may get disoriented in time and are rendered unable to distinguish between days, weeks, as well as years. Further on, they may forget where they are, or where they come from and even who they are, as well as people around them.

As it is, symptoms of dementia may be categorized as either reversible or irreversible and it depends upon the etiology of the disease. Causes of the syndrome include might include various definite disease processes, in the same manner as the signs of other organ dysfunctions like shortness of breath, jaundice, as well as pain, which is attributable to different etiologies.

In many cases, dementia is confused with short-term syndrome of delirium. This is because; they have several symptoms, which are common. Apart from that, several other mental illnesses, like depression, or psychosis, may also manifest symptoms which should be differentiated from both delirium, as well as dementia.

Proper diagnosis of dementia involves differentiation between cortical and sub cortical types. As it is, diagnosis procedure involve, first of all visit to a specialist, such as geriatric psychiatrist, gero-psychologist, geriatric internist, neurologist, or a neuropsychologist. Apart from that, several tests are also available, which can be made use of, in order to test the cognitive status of a person. Several factors are also taken into consideration, such as the educational and socio economic background of the subject, age, as well as the current state of mind.

Another major aspect in regard to this condition is that there is still no cure to this illness; and except for a few treatable types, the rest are largely incurable. Scientists are however, making progress in this direction and soon may find a medication that will at least slow down the process of degradation of cognitive skills, if not cured. At this day, less than 10 percent of the cases of dementia occur due to causes that might be reversed with the help of treatment.

Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome refers to an overgrowth disorder, which is present at the time of birth and is marked by an augmented risk of childhood cancer, as well as certain other features. A major aspect of this syndrome is that of the variation among the individuals with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and the deficiency of a diagnostic test, identification of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome might be difficult.

In an effort to regulate the classification of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, a person is believed to be suffering from Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome in case if the person is diagnosed by a renowned physician as suffering from Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and in case the person shows two or more of the five common characteristics, which are associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.

The five most common features associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome are macroglossia, macrosomia, midline abdominal wall defects, umbilical hernia, ear creases or ear pits, and neonatal hypoglycemia. As it is, most children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome do not carry all of the five features. Along with that some children with this syndrome have other symptoms, which include hemihypertropy, nevus flammeus, genitourinary anomalies, prominent occiput, midface hypoplasia, musculoskeletal abnormalities, cardiac anomalies, as well as hearing loss. Apart from this, certain premature newborns with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome do not carry macroglossia until closer to the anticipated delivery date.

As it is, most children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome do not tend to develop cancer, although children with this syndrome do have a substantially increased risk of cancer. As a matter of fact, children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome are mainly at risk during the early childhood and must receive cancer screening in this time.

In general cases, children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome do quite well and usually grow up to be adults of normal stature as well as intelligence, generally without the syndromic characteristics of their childhood.

Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is believed to have an estimated occurance of one in 13,700. As it is, around three hundred children with the syndrome are born every year in United States. The exact occurance of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is not known due to the marked variablility in case of the manifestation of the syndrome, as well as difficulties with diagnosis. As it is, the number of reported cases of infants born with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is most likely to be low as many are born with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, but have clinical features, which are less prominent and hence get missed. Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome has been reported in a number of ethnic groups and may occur equally in both males, as well as females.

Bardet-Biedl syndrome refers to a ciliopathic human genetic disorder, which produces several effects and tends to affect several body functions. It is marked mainly by polydactyly, obesity, retinitis pigmentosa, hypogonadism, mental retardation, as well as renal failure in some of the cases.

The very first known cases were reported in the year 1866 at the Ophthalmic Hospital of South London. The syndrome is often confused with Laurence-Moon syndrome. Now, Laurence-Moon syndrome is generally considered to be a separate entity. Some recent researches however, suggest that the two conditions might not be distinct.

The major characteristics of patients with the syndrome include loss of, or a diminished sense of, smell, Fibrosis of the gastrointestinal system, poor visual acuity, Pigmentary retinopathy, low vision, and at times even blindness, apart from mental and growth retardation. Not just that, obesity, most probably related to a diminished sensory function, which would usually indicate satiation.

A patient might also suffer from urogenital sinuses, Hypogonadism, uterus duplex, renal failure, ectopic urethra, septate vagina, as well as hypoplasia of the ovaries, uterus and fallopian tubes. Hypertrophy of the interventricular septum as well as the left ventricle along with dilated cardiomyopathy is a few other features. A patient may also suffer from Polydactyly or syndactyly. At times, some patients also report of an extra sensitive sense of smell.

Recent findings suggested of unrecognized, yet essential, role for the mammalian basal body proteins as in the acquisition of the mechano- and thermosensory stimuli clinical characteristics of ciliopathies in case of humans. As it is, a wide range of socialization as well as social interaction problems are believed to be associated with Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Some might refer to it as a sort of mild Autism.

A number of children who are later on diagnosed with Bardet-Biedl syndrome have gone through an extensive period of time while school and medical professionals tend to struggle to suggest a name for this problem over several years. As it is, two forms of the syndrome have been identified. The first is Bardet-Biedl syndrome 1, which is mapped to markers on the chromosome 11. The second is Bardet-Biedl syndrome 2 is mapped to markers on the chromosome 16.

Bardet-Biedl syndrome is one such syndrome, which has now been recognized to be caused due to defects in cellular ciliary structure. Therefore, Bardet-Biedl syndrome is a ciliopathy. The other known ciliopathies include Meckel-Gruber syndrome, nephronophthisis, primary ciliary dyskinesia, Alstrom syndrome, polycystic kidney as well as liver disease and certain forms of retinal degeneration.

Bulimia nervosa refers to a kind of eating disorder. Its major features include persistent over eating, along with compensatory behaviors. The most common factors which are visible in three out of four people suffering from bulimia nervosa include fasting, over exercising, self-induced vomiting, which is also known as purging, as well as extensive use of laxatives, enemas, apart from diuretics. The condition was first explained, as well as named by the well known British psychiatrist Gerald Russell in the year1979.

As it is, a patient suffering from Bulimia nervosa involves several symptoms, which includes persistent episodes of over eating. Here, a patient may eat an amount of food in a fixed period of time. The diet in this case is definitely more than what most people would go for under similar situations. They may often lack control over their eating and may eventually be in a situation, where they cannot stop eating or exercise control over how much they are eating.

A major aspect of Bulimia nervosa is that it can be quite difficult to detect, in comparison with anorexia nervosa. This is because; people with Bulimia nervosa are usually of average or at times, slightly above, as well as below average weight. Some patients might also be involved in substantially disordered eating, as well as exercising patterns without fulfilling the entire diagnostic criteria in regard to bulimia nervosa.

The patient may also indulge in persistent improper compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain. This might include misuse of diuretics, laxatives, as well as other medications, self-induced vomiting, apart from fasting and excessive exercise. As it is, self-evaluation is greatly influenced by body weight as well as shape. The symptoms may show on an average for twice a week and may persist for around three months.

The onset generally recorded during adolescence. As it is, many sufferers relapse in case of maturity into episodic purging, as well as overeating and even after originally successful treatment as well as remission.

As it is, there is no such universally accepted treatment in regard to this condition. Treatment in general is predicated on the basis of a real or a hypothetical relationship with other disorders. Also, many researchers have assumed a relationship with mood disorders. In response to this, conduction of clinical trials have taken place with tricyclic antidepressants, trazodone, bupropion, fluoxetine, lithium carbonate, as well as nomifensine.

Apart from that, there have also been promising results with the usage of dialectical behavioral therapy in case of people with bulimia nervosa, particular in regard to eating disorders.

Alcohol dementia, is a kind of dementia resulted due to, excessive or long-term drinking, causing neurological damage as well as memory loss. As it is, alcohol is believed to result in serious cognitive problems in quite a few cases of alcoholics and one out of ten patients suffering from dementia are due to prolonged misuse of alcohol.

As far as the signs of alcohol dementia are concerned, they are fundamentally the same as the signs that are present in the other types of dementia. Now, there are few qualitative differences in between Alzheimer’s disease and alcohol dementia and therefore it is difficult to differentiate between the two disorders. Some of the warning signs might include memory loss, problems with language, difficulty in performing familiar tasks, as well as poor or impaired judgment. However the most visible indicator is that of friends and family members reporting of changes in personality. The fact that such warning signs are so much similar, that it makes alcohol dementia, very much difficult to diagnose.

As it is, a person who consumes excessive amount of alcohol over an extended period of time is at a high risk of suffering from alcohol related dementia. As it is, some people are exposed to a greater risk than the others. A male who consumes six or more of alcoholic drinks a day is exposing himself to a greater risk. Similarly, in case of females who consume four or more of alcoholic drinks daily are also considerably increasing their chances of alcohol dementia. However such a type of drinking should be sustained for a considerable period of time.

It is widely believed that it is only the elderly, who are afflicted with various types of dementia. It is particularly not true in regard to alcohol dementia. The onset of it might be as early as at the age of thirty. Although it is quite possible to suffer from alcohol related dementia, very early in life, yet it is far more likely that the dementia would reveal itself in the age of fifty to seventy years. Essentially the onset, as well as the severity of such a type of dementia has been directly correlated, with the amount of alcohol, which a person might consume over his lifetime.

Alcohol is said to have a direct effect on the cells of the brain. The face of the brain is a place, where most of the cells of the brain are affected, causing poor judgment, lack of insight, as well as difficulty in making decisions. As it is, long-time alcohol abuse might often result in poor nutrition problems, which may further cause parts of brain to be damaged due to vitamin deficiencies. Such problems might also result in the personality changes of some people.

The central nervous system, or CNS, as it is also known as, is that part of the nervous system, which is responsible for coordinating the activity of all the parts of the bodies of the multicellular organisms. In case of vertebrates, the central nervous system is located in the meninges. It constitutes the bulk of the nervous system; and consists of the brain as well, along with the spinal cord. In association with the peripheral nervous system it plays a very important role in the control of behavior.

The central nervous system is located within the dorsal cavity. The brain is located in the cranial cavity, while the spinal cord is located in the spinal cavity. Now, the brain is protected by the skull, whereas the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae.

As it is, the telencephalon makes way for the striatum, the hippocampus, as well as the neocortex, while its cavity becomes the lateral ventricles. The diencephalon develops the thalamus, hypothalamus, the subthalamus, as well as the epithalamus, with its cavity along the third ventricle. The mesencephalon develops the cerebral peduncle, the tectum, as well as the pretectum and its cavity grows into the cerebral aqueduct, or the mesencephalic duct. Similarly, the rhombencephalon makes way for the pons, the cerebellum, as well as the medulla oblongata, as its cavity becomes the fourth ventricle.

As a matter of fact, the central nervous system is believed to be a system responsible for information processing, wherein a suitable motor output is calculated as a response to a sensory impulse. Yet, several studies and researches reveal that motor activity is present much before the maturation of the sensory systems. It also reveals that the senses only influence behavior without dictating it.

The primary pattern of the central nervous system is very much conserved throughout the various species of vertebrates, during evolution. A major development that can be observed is in regard to a progressive telencephalisation, whereas in case of the reptilian brain, that particular region is only an addendum to the large olfactory bulb, it represents majority of the volume of the mammalian central nervous system. In case of the human brain, the telencephalon involves majority of the diencephalon, as well as the mesencephalon. As it is, the allometric study of the brain size of different species reveal a striking continuity from rats to whales, helping in completing the knowledge in regard to the evolution of the central nervous system obtained through cranial endocasts.

A culture-bound syndrome or culture-specific syndrome denotes a combination of somatic, as well as psychiatric symptoms, which are believed to be a considerable disorder only within a specific culture or society. A significant section of mental disorders, in the mode they are marked and occur, are at least moderately accustomed by the culture in which they are present. Some disorders however, are more culture-specific than others.

As it is, there is no objective biochemical, as well as structural modifications of body functions or organs and the disorder is not accepted in other cultures. As a matter of fact, the notion of culture-bound syndromes is very contentious and due to this reason, many medical doctors, psychologists, as well as anthropologists dismiss the conception.

The term was incorporated in the fourth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It also incorporates a list of the most usual culture-bound conditions. As it is, Arthur Kleinman, who is an American psychiatrist as well as medical anthropologist, has made great contribution in this field, enriching our understanding in regard to these syndromes.

A culture- bound syndrome is manifested by characteristics like widespread acquaintance in the culture, complete lack of acquaintance of the situation to people of other cultures, classification as a disease in the culture, as well as lack of objectively verifiable biochemical or tissue defects. As it is, the state is usually accepted and treated by the folk medicine of the specific cultures.

As it is, some culture-bound syndromes include somatic symptoms, like ache or troubled functionality of a body part, whereas others syndromes are purely behavioral. Apart from that, certain culture-bound syndromes manifest with similar characteristics in many cultures, but with locally-specific features like penis panics.

Unlike what many people might think, a culture-bound syndrome is not similar to geographically localized diseases with identifiable, specific and connecting tissue disorders like sleeping sickness, or genetic conditions restricted to certain populations. It is also believed that a condition initially understood to be a culture-specific behavioral syndrome might have a biological cause. On the basis of a medical viewpoint it would then be explained into another nosological category.

A fascinating feature of culture-bound disorders is the degree to which they are authentic. As it is, portraying them as unreal is rather inaccurate.  A major drawback in this regard is the lack of a clear way to visualize them from a Western scientific outlook. Culture-bound syndromes throw light on as to how our mind concludes that specific symptoms are related and how a society or culture would define a recognized disorder.

Anorexia nervosa refers to a kind of psychiatric illness. It is an eating disorder, which is characterized by body image distortion, along with an extremely low body weight, accompanied by an obsessive phobia of weight gain. Patients suffering from anorexia are believed to control their body weight, usually by way of self induced vomiting, voluntary starvation, excessive exercise, along with other weight control measures like diuretic drugs or diet pills.

The condition mainly affects adolescent females. However, quite a few people suffering from the disorder are male. As it is, Anorexia nervosa, along with psychological, neurobiological, as well as sociological components is a very complex condition, which may even result in death in severe cases.

Despite the fact that biological tests can help in case of diagnosis of anorexia; diagnosis is usually on the basis of a combination of reported beliefs, behavior, as well as experiences, along with the physical features of the patient as well. As it is, Anorexia is generally diagnosed by a psychiatrist, a clinical psychologist, or any other aptly qualified clinician. As it is, diagnostic criteria are there for the assistance of clinicians and are not aimed to be a reflective of what an individual may feel or experience during his course with the illness.

Extreme weight loss, Body mass index of less than 17.5 in case of adults, stunted growth, Endocrine disorder, decreased libido, starvation symptoms, like hypothermia, anemia, reduced metabolism, hypotension, as well as slow heart rate, abnormalities related to mineral, as well as electrolyte levels inside the body.

The patient may also suffer from thinning of the hair, growth of lanugo hair over the body, a constant feeling of cold, Zinc deficiency, reduction in the white blood cell count, reduced immune system function, apart from pallid complexion, as well as sunken eyes. A patient may also have creaking joints, as well as bones, accumulation of fluid in the ankles and around the eyes, tooth decay, constipation, dry skin, as well as parched lips.

In conditions of extreme weight loss, a patient can suffer nerve deterioration, which might result in difficulty to move the feet. Along with that, poor circulation, resulting in purple extremities, headaches, brittle fingernails, easy bruising, fragile appearance, resulting in a frail body image, apart from slowing of the growth of breasts, as well as drastic changes in blood pressure are other common features of this disorder.

Anorexia nervosa is also marked by changes in brain structure, along with reduced blood flow to the temporal lobes. Proper diagnosis and treatment is therefore quite necessary.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia, which refers to a progressive decline in the cognitive function, resulting from damage or disease in the body, which is beyond what may be expected from normal aging. This degenerative, terminal, as well as incurable illness was first addressed by German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer in the year1906.

It is usually diagnosed in people, who have crossed the age of 65 years. However, the less common early-onset Alzheimer’s disease can strike at a much earlier age. According to a rough estimate, more than twenty five million people across the globe suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. This number is expected to quadruple by the year 2050.

A very sad aspect in this regard is the relatively primitive level of information that we have in regard to this condition, which is very much inadequate, as far as cure or prevention is concerned. As it is, the causes of Alzheimer’s disease are not well known. Studies and research reveal a strong association with plaques and tangles inside the brain.

Current treatments however, offer a very small symptomatic benefit; although no treatments for the delay, as well as halting the progression of the disease is available as yet. However, researches are in progress and we are sure to hit upon a cure in near future. Apart from that, several measures have been suggested in regard to the prevention of the disease, but their credibility in regard to slowing the course, or reducing the severity of the disease, is yet not known to us. As it is, mental stimulation, exercise, as well as balanced diet are said to be an effective way of prevention, as well as slowing the course of the disease.

As far as symptoms in regard to the disease are concerned, different patients have been found to experience different sets of symptoms. However, there are a few symptoms, which are commonly visible. In most of the cases, the early symptoms are dismissed as age-related problems, or simply manifestations of stress.

As it is, the most common symptom of this illness is loss of memory loss, which gets deteriorated over a period of time. With the advancement of the illness, other symptoms begin to show up, which include irritability and aggression, anxiety, confusion, language breakdown, mood swings, long-term memory loss, as well as a general withdrawal on part of the patient, as their senses begin to decline. With the passage of time, general bodily functions are lost, which ultimately leads to death.

Diagnosis in case of the disease is generally confirmed by way of behavioral assessments, as well as cognitive tests, which is often followed by a brain scan. As it is, individual diagnosis is quite difficult, as the duration of the disease varies generally.